Virtual Reality as a Platform for Upper-Limb Prosthetic Control Modes Evaluation and Early-Stage DesignYunmei Liu, Junho Park, Daniel Delgado, Austin Music, Joseph Berman, Jaime Ruiz, David Kaber, He Huang, Maryam Zahabi

This study investigated the potential of using virtual reality (VR) as a platform for early-stage design of upper-limb prostheses as well as evaluation with a focus on performance, cognitive workload and usability. Three prosthetic device control modes (Direct Control, DC; Pattern Recognition, PR; and Continuous Control, CC) were compared across physical device (PD) and VR settings. Results indicated that task performance was generally lower in VR than in PD for DC and CC modes, likely due to the reduction of haptic cues and stricter spatial-alignment requirements in the VR interaction setting. PR mode, however, showed consistent performance across settings, highlighting its resilience to sensory limitations in VR. Cognitive workload differed by mode, with DC showing reduced workload in VR due to visual task performance aids (e.g., automatic counting of successful clothespin relocations or door-handle turns), while the PR and CC modes produced higher perceived workload, likely due to the VR simulation control demands. Usability scores were consistent across settings and control modes, highlighting the reliability of VR as a platform for early-stage prosthetic evaluation. These findings highlight the potential of VR as a cost-effective, accessible platform to refine prosthetic control algorithms and facilitate user adaptation, while also emphasizing the need for enhancements, such as haptic feedback to improve VR applicability for advanced design and development.